Petuntse, or porcelain stone, was quarried from the mountains surrounding Jingdezhen. The hard feldspathic rock was cut from the cliffs by labourers, then broken into smaller pieces. Images courtesy of Bonhams London, Christie's Amsterdam, the Hong Kong Maritiem museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Kaolin, the essential porcelain clay, was gathered from weathered deposits in the hills surrounding Jingdezhen. Labourers excavated the soft white earth, carrying it away in shoulder baskets. 

The raw porcelain materials were washed and refined in mountain streams near Jingdezhen. Labourers carried the clay and porcelain stone in wooden buckets, using water to separate and purify the fine material before it was prepared for porcelain production.

After extraction, the porcelain stone and kaolin were crushed and refined using large wooden pestles powered by waterwheels. These water-driven stampers continuously pounded the raw materials into a fine powder, an essential step in preparing the clay for porcelain manufacture. 

Labourers crushed the dried porcelain stone with heavy wooden pounders before the material was carefully sifted and refined. These laborious processes were essential in producing the fine white body required for Chinese porcelain. 

The refined porcelain clay was pressed into blocks and tablets before being dried and stored. 

These clay tablets could then be transported to the workshops.

The clay was shaped by hand on the potter’s wheel. Assisted by an apprentice who kept the wheel in motion, the potter formed bowls and vessels which were then left to dry before firing.

After leaving the potter’s wheel, the vessels were carefully trimmed and refined. Excess clay was removed to lighten the porcelain body, while the footrim was shaped by hand to create an elegant and balanced form.

The dried porcelain wares were carefully transported to the kilns.

Before firing, the porcelain wares were carefully placed inside protective ceramic containers known as saggars. These refractory clay boxes shielded the fragile vessels from ash, flames, smoke, and impurities inside the kiln. Stacked high within the ovens, the saggars played an essential role in preserving the purity and fine surface of Chinese porcelain during the intense firing process.

The first biscuit firing was a slow and carefully controlled process that could last several days, including the cooling period. The kilns reached temperatures of approximately 900–1000°C, hardening the fragile clay vessels. Managing the heat required great experience, as uneven temperatures or rapid cooling could easily cause the porcelains to crack or warp.

After the first biscuit firing, the porcelain wares were carefully removed from the kiln and inspected for flaws or damage. The firing had hardened the clay body sufficiently for the vessels to be glazed, painted, and prepared for the final firing.

After the initial firing, the porcelain wares were carefully painted by skilled artisans using cobalt blue for underglaze blue and white porcelain or coloured enamels on already glazed porcelain. 

The porcelain glazes were prepared from finely ground minerals mixed with water to create a smooth liquid suspension. Before use, the glaze was repeatedly washed, stirred, and filtered to remove impurities and achieve the correct consistency.

The porcelain vessels were carefully coated in glaze, often by dipping them into large vats of the prepared mixture. During the final firing, the glaze melted into the brilliant glass-like surface.

Not all porcelains were decorated with painted designs, but instead covered in a single-coloured glaze. The vessels were dipped or coated in carefully prepared glazes which transformed during firing into rich luminous surfaces, ranging from celadon green and deep sacrificial red to brilliant imperial yellow and pure white.

After drying, the porcelain wares (again with the use of  saggars) were placed inside kilns for a second firing. They now underwent a second and far hotter firing. Reaching temperatures of over 1300°C, the intense heat vitrified the porcelain body and fused the glaze into a smooth luminous surface. 

The firing of porcelain required immense skill and experience. The kilns were fuelled day and night with large quantities of wood, while the temperature was carefully controlled through small openings in the kiln walls. Too much heat could ruin the wares, while insufficient firing left the porcelain weak and dull. Master kiln workers judged the progress of the firing by the colour of the flames and the glow within the kiln itself.

Once the kiln had cooled, the porcelain was carefully removed and inspected by the craftsmen. This was a moment of great anticipation, as the final colours and glaze effects only fully revealed themselves after firing. 

From kiln to market! The streets and waterways of Jingdezhen were filled with merchants trading porcelain of every type and quality. 

From small local shops to large commercial warehouses, the city thrived as the great centre of China’s porcelain industry.

Porcelains were carefully inspected and graded according to their quality. The richly dressed figure wearing a distinctive Qing-style official hat likely represents a supervisor, merchant, or government official connected to the imperial kilns of Jingdezhen. Such figures oversaw the production and selection of the finest porcelains destined for the Imperial court.

After inspection, the porcelains were carefully wrapped and packed into wooden tubs and carrying baskets for transport. Protected with layers of straw, cloth, and paper, the fragile wares were prepared for the long journey from the imperial kilns of Jingdezhen to merchants, officials, and distant markets throughout China.

Packed in wooden tubs and baskets, the porcelains were carried across steep mountain paths by teams of porters. The journey from the kilns of Jingdezhen was long and difficult, requiring immense care to protect the fragile wares during transport.

After crossing the mountain roads, the porcelains continued their journey by river boat through China’s vast network of waterways. 

Navigating dangerous rapids and narrow passages, the wares gradually made their way south towards the great trading port of Canton.

After travelling through the inland waterways, the porcelains continued their journey south aboard traditional Chinese junks bound for Canton. Packed in wooden tubs and baskets, the fragile wares were carried across China’s rivers and coastal waters as part of the empire’s vast trade network.

After months of travel through China’s rivers and coastal waters, the porcelains finally arrived at the bustling port of Canton. Here the wares were unloaded into large warehouses and merchant compounds, where they were inspected, traded, and prepared for sale to Chinese and foreign merchants.

Upon reaching Canton, the porcelains were displayed in specialised shops and merchant houses serving both Chinese and foreign buyers. At the left, Dutch merchants of the VOC can be seen visiting the porcelain dealers and examining the finest wares from Jingdezhen. From Canton, Chinese porcelain was purchased for export to Europe, where it became highly prized and eagerly collected by the European elite.

In Canton, specialised merchant shops offered not only porcelain, but also tea, lacquerware, silks, paintings, and other luxury goods destined for both Chinese and foreign buyers. The bustling trading district brought together merchants, officials, craftsmen, and international traders, making Canton one of the great commercial centres of the Qing dynasty.

Canton (Guangzhou) became the only Chinese port officially open to most foreign trade. Merchants from many nations established themselves there, including the Dutch VOC, the British East India Company, French, Danish, Swedish, and later American traders. Foreign merchants were confined to a special riverside district known as the “Factories,” where they lived, traded, and negotiated with licensed Chinese merchants under strict imperial regulation. From Canton, vast quantities of tea, silk, lacquer, and above all porcelain were shipped to markets across the world.

Before departing for Europe, the porcelains were carefully packed into large export chests lined with straw, paper, and bamboo wrapping to protect the fragile wares during the long sea voyage.

At Canton, the porcelains were transferred onto Chinese junks and European East Indiamen, including ships of the Dutch VOC. From here, Chinese porcelain began its long sea journey to the ports and collections of Europe.